Freedom of Speech Essay

Originally rap music has been around since 1926 and was not as popular back then as it is now. Teenagers to adults listen to an average of two point five (2.5) maybe three (3) hours of music per day. Study shown in 1 of 3 of the songs played contains explicit language and reference to drugs alcohol or women. Ice Cube’s album entitled ‘Death Certificate’ sends messages that bluntly and descriptively threatens violence against homosexuals, women, whites who exploit blacks, whites who covet black women, Korean shopkeepers and police officers. Jon Pareles who wrote the article, ‘Should Ice Cube Voice be Chilled? ’argues from several different point of views on why Cube’s album should not be sold. The article also argues that his voice should be chilled because of violent lyrics and threats towards which it addresses. Jon Pareles made his argument by simply using different responses and groups to show why the album should not be sold and should be edited. For example, the Simon Wiesenthal Center is Jewish human rights group who demanded four major record stores chains to cease in selling the album. The called it ‘cultural Molotov cocktail’. After listening to it, the Center realizes how quickly this album is going to explode in the minds and ears of young and old listeners. Another example was ‘Black Korea’ which according to Ice Cube meant Korean shopkeepers who follow the customer throughout the store to ensure they do not steal. This section of the album did not just scratched below the surface but stirred a nationwide boycott. The Korean- American Coalition did not take this lightly, they condemned and deleted it. In an editorial review, a response by James Bernard favored censoring the lyrics because some people are too thin-skinned. Also, Mr. Bernard knew that these types of issue people are force to face on a day to day basis. Why did Ice Cube use such blunt and threatening lyrics? Ice Cube was born and raised in an area polluted with crime, violence and where trust was hidden underground. His inappropriate reactions and vengeance was all towards how he and his people were treated (bullied). Pareles describes this reaction of one that is simplistic and ugly because, this would not eradicate the problem but cause an escalation. The clear message of this album caught enough attention by the media and organizations to determine whether or not ‘Death Certificate’ should be heard at all. The question remains unanswered to curious critics, why are people buying ‘Death Certificate’. Some just savor the action like movie imagery that Ice Cube presents. His gift of violence attracts his listeners to buy the album. Ice Cube lyrics did have some effects on young listeners during the recession; gang involvement disillusioned. However, the majority of the listeners will just play loud music. Jon Pareles produced strong points from many different organizations, groups and individual views on why the album should be terminated. The writer never once critized Ice Cube but spectated his album as a whole. On the other hand, Pareles also agree that although Ice Cube does not have the most positive thinking, he has a right to be heard, but he is going to have to answer and be challenged for his thinking and decisions.

Benefits of Science

Daylon Coles Everybody in this country knows the benefits of having science apart of our culture. Science is the systematized body of knowledge which helps our minds to learn and discover all about everything. It improves us by developing our minds, creating advancements in technology and makes it a bit easier to live in our world.Science matters in our world and it should matter for the simple fact that without science, we would fail to make advancements in life, from a business and ethical standpoint, and it should matter because ancient civilizations which were far more advanced than us, incorporated science as their primary means of survival and advancements. Measles is a highly contagious viral illness of the respiratory system that spreads through airborne droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes.Historically, measles has been a life taking disease, but WHO (World Health Organizations) reported in 2006 that measles death rates dropped from 871,000 to 454,000 between 1 999 and 2004, thanks to a global immunization drive. That’s about a 50 percent decrease in 5 years thanks to the advancement in Science. Living in this country you can’t fail to neglect the business aspect of it. Science has also proved to have some pros to the business aspect of life.If we were to take a look at some numbers, exclude ethics, and examine the business aspect, ’some’ people are actually generating a very good profit: In the year 2008, there were more than two dozen pharmaceutical companies that grossed over a billion dollars. In order to determine if we need science in our world, we would have to determine whether or not the world would be a more effective place without science. That would mean taking away the scientists of the world and imagining the world without it.I’ll attempt to focus on a couple of scientist and what they do and you, the reader, can determine whether or not we need these sciences: Agricultural Scientist- Study commercial plants, animals and cultivation techniques that increases the productivity of farms, Microbiologists- study bacteria, virus and fungi, Neuroscientist- study the function of the nervous system, Medical scientists- Scientists who carry out clinical trials to find revolutionary solutions in the field of medicine. So for instance, you take away the science of agriculture and you fail to have to necessary crops to produce basic means for life.You take away microbiology and you will no longer have the tools to create vaccines for diseases people encounter in everyday life. If you were to sit back for a moment, and just visualize the world without the many different braches of science, you can clearly see the world is in much need and will continue to be in dire need of science. One negative viewpoint people may try to take is that advancement in science and technology brings pollution, destroys animal life and maybe even one day it will destroy earth.People may also believe Sci ence opposes the way humans should live, degrading our morals and encourage humans to be lazy and materialistic. These theories can potentially be true, but before fully agreeing with them ask you to imagine this scenario; If you were sitting in a room tied down to a chair with a loaded gun on the table, would the gun shoot you? It’s just you, four walls, yourself tied down to the chair and the loaded gun. Obviously the gun would not shot you. That is the same exact concept of science. It’s not the science that causes so much pollution and makes people lazy; it’s the people.If you were to take a doctor who specializes in abortions, but decides to never indulge in performing such operations, people wouldn’t see him as abusing his right. So when looking at science from a negative viewpoint remember guns don’t kill people, people kill people. No matter how you look at it, science is a vital concept in life and without it, we would be a lost civilizati on. Science does matter in the world and it should matter for the simple reason of progression. If you aren’t going forwards, then you’re going backwards and fortunately, science is the tool that allows us to continue to advance.

Development and Reward System

Organizations today realize that employees are part of their competitive advantages. Along with effective business strategies and sufficient capital, investments for developing highly skilled human resources have been part of most companies’ road towards success. In order to obtain this unique competitive advantage, organizational management must be able to give sufficient motivation to their employees (Creech, 1995).One of the considered approaches of management in motivating their employees is through reward system. Primarily, the goal of this paper is to provide an analysis of the aims of organisation in setting reward system. In addition, this will also provide discussions of some of the trends in reward practice and the emerging laws that affect employee rewards.Aims of Organisation for Setting Reward SystemIn Human Resource Management, the employee reward policy is intended to align employees with organizational strategy by providing incentives for employees to act in th e firm's interest and perform well over time. Expectancy theory carries a clear message that employees must feel confident that their effort will affect the rewards they receive. Perceptions of equity are therefore crucial in an employee's decision to remain and produce valuable work.Equity is a multidimensional construct, embracing external equity (the degree to which a firm pays employees the rate they would find in the external labour market), internal equity (the degree to which a firm differentiates pay between employees on the basis of performance in similar jobs), and individual equity (the degree to which employees are rewarded proportionately to their individual performance) (Dean and Snell, 1993).Because of the changing demands of performance on employees in high- velocity companies, perceptions of equity in its three forms may become confused, as job roles and job interdependence become more varied and flexible. Since employees would expect that as their job changes, so w ill their rewards, designing reward systems in high-velocity environments presents a major challenge to organizations. In high-velocity environments, a premium is placed on individuals who are able to operate in ambiguous circumstances and who are able to take advantage of loose job descriptions provided by their employers.Organizations in high-velocity environments are willing to pay proportionally higher salaries to individuals who have such skills. We would expect, therefore, that emphasis on individually equitable rewards as a means of recruiting and retaining highly capable employees would be required (Gomez-Mejia and Welbourne 1990; Snell and Dean 1992).Employee Rewards Policy amended by the Human Resource Management can be classified under three broad headings: performance-contingent rewards, which explicitly reward through performance outputs; job-contingent rewards, where pay is contingent on job classification; and person-contingent rewards, in which pay is dependent on th e competencies a person has (Dean & Snell, 1993). Because both output orientation and job   classification may be difficult to measure accurately in high-velocity conditions, the prospect of person-contingent rewards, which may encourage the values of learning, flexibility, and creativity, would seem to be best suited to fast-changing conditions.In addition, Employee Reward Policy can be one of the greatest foundations of control available to a company in its quest to increase organizational performance and effectiveness, yet remain one of the most underutilized and potentially complex tools for driving organizational performance. The importance and complexity of linking reward strategies to business goals in a systematic manner has been a recurrent argument in the study in this field, as has the importance and difficulty of linking rewards to the longer-term view (Hambrick & Snow, 1989). In describing the strongest level of linkage the emphasis has been placed on Lawler's (1990) description of reward processes which are capable of reinforcing the behaviours crucial to business strategy like long-term versus short-term, customer focus versus financial results.Statement EvaluationPeople do work for money, but they work even more for meaning in their lives. In fact they work to have fun. This statement can be evaluated using the physiological needs of people. Human beings have needs which can be classified as physiological, safety and security, social, esteem and status, and self-actualization. This means that although employees work because they want to ear incomes, there are still needs that should be fulfilled to ensure their contentment and happiness in what they are doing.  If any of the needs is unmet, or unsatisfied a person, the individual can be motivated if provided with an opportunity to satisfy the unmet need or needs. The most motivating opportunities are the most valued. The most valued opportunities are those designed to provide satisfaction o f the most intense unmet needs. What needs are most intense varies from individual to individual. One person's most dominant need may be the need to be happy (Romzek, 1989).In order to motivate and encourage the workers and employees to render their performances and to help them enjoy more of what they are doing, the employers should are giving recognition to those employees whose works is exemplary or that employee who has contributes to outstanding achievements and accomplishments of the mission and objectives of an organization as a whole.   Rewards and recognition go a long way to keeping employees motivated, satisfied, and committed. Management should recognize employees for both their progress toward and achievement of desired performance goals. It should show appreciation for small accomplishment as well as big ones.The recognition must be ongoing to reinforce employees' need to feel that they're doing a good job.   Moreover, the best forms of recognition typically have l ittle or no cost (Nelson, 1998). The statement just justifies the saying that people become more devoted to work when they feel that their environment likes them and appreciate the things they are doing.According to Skinner (1953), the reinforcement theory suggests the behaviors of the employees directly impact the outcome of their work or their performance. Thus, an employee with a positive behavior will bring about positive outcomes, whereas those with negative behaviors will lead to negative results. Thus, the positive behaviors of the employees should then be reinforced by their managers so as to generate more positive outcomes.Trends in Reward PracticeBeing able to recognise the needs for highly motivated individuals, human resource management has been able to develop different ways in rewarding their employees. The trends in reward practice include the broadbanding and performance-related pay and competency based pay or skill-based pay. This paper will focus on the broadbandin g and performance-related pay. Broadbanding is a manner of reducing the number of narrow grades in a certain pay structure into a smaller number of broader bands. This reward practice is based on the view that narrow ranges cannot reward employees who have reached their range maximum but who are still performing effective. The main goal of this reward practice is to provide greater flexibility to reward the acquisition of wider skills as well as competencies without need to promote the employees in each case or situation (Payment Practices, 2008).On the other hand, the performance-related pay is a common term for various approaches to warding or rewarding discretionary payments to employees on the basis of their contribution to the company. Among this common approach include the pay awards for successful meeting work objectives or for showing work-related competences or the integration of the two.   it can be said that each of this reward practice can be helpful for motivating and retaining skilful employees (DeWitt & Hamel, 2002).For rewards to be valued, the human resource management must see to it that the Employee Reward Policy includes the proper scheduling on when would be the most accurate time to give the rewards. Generally rewards received by an individual soon after accomplishment of a goal, or soon after attainment of a given targeted performance level, are the most valued rewards and the rewards that serve best to install a desire for further achievement or continued good performance, when the reward is tied to performance in time that reward is closely associated with the performance. It becomes an extension of the performance. It has real meaning because one can vividly see that it was received for performance.Laws that Affects Employee RewardsIf the employers are thinking of giving employees special rewards as incentives for having good attendance records, there are some legal and laws which prohibits them to do so.   For instance, the royal mail introduced a reward system for staff which did not take time off sick. Under this system, employees with full attendance records will be included into a prize draw to win Ford Focus cars or holiday packages. In the staff incentive, this system can be perceived as a workable reward to let the employees minimize or totally avoid their absences. However, this kind of system has some serious ramifications from certain employment law. This can be attributed to the employment discrimination law (Coopers, 2005).Herein, the management of Royal mail can be given discrimination charges for disability or age. The success of these claims depends on the specific situation of employees and their needs. This discrimination of age or disability may happen if, for instance, an employee had time off associated to the age and disability and this was not taken into consideration by the management under the reward system. Herein, there is an existing law that says that the failure of the managemen t to set-aside such employee’s absence due to age or disability related reasons can be considered as less favourable treatment.   Hence, this would hinder the company to provide reward for those individual who have no absences for this would not be fair for other employees. In this regard, if the company would like to continue the reward system, they must have some list of exceptions in the reward system. In this regard, it is safer for employees to give bonuses and rewards based on the performance and not by the number of absences.ConclusionRegardless of the targeted employees, the organization today is attempting to become employers of choice.   In order to become one, the management of the organization shall create an Employee reward system where potential job candidates feel that it will be an accomplishment to earn a job with the organization, and that once they have a job, the individual’s performance will be rewarded.ReferenceCreech, R. (1995). Employee Moti vation. Management Quarterly, 36(2), 33+.DeWitt, G. and Hamel, G. (2002). alternative Compensation Plan. Legislative Finance Committee. Online available at http://leg.mt.gov/content/publications/fiscal/interim/financecmty_june2002/broadband_report.pdf Retrieve April 21, 2008.Dean, J.W.; Snell, S.A. (1993). â€Å"‘Integrated Manufacturing and Job Design:The Moderating Effect of Organizational Inertia.Gomez-Mejia, L.R.; Welbourne, T.M. (1990). â€Å"‘The Role of Compensation in The Human Resource Management Strategies of High Technology Firms'†, in M. A. Von Glinow and S. A. Mohrman (eds.), Managing Complexity in High Technology Organizations. New York: Oxford University Press.Hambrick, D.C.; Snow, C.C. (1989). â€Å"‘Strategic Reward Systems'†, in C. C. Snow (ed.), Strategy, Organizational Design and Human Resource Management. Greenwich, Connecticut: JAI Press.Lawler, E.E. (1990). Strategic Pay. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.Payment Practices (2008. Onli ne available http://pmf.haven gateway.org/remuneration_and_reward/pay_practices_in_the_uk. retrieve April 21, 2008.Romzek, B.S. (1989). Personal consequences of employee commitment. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 649-661Nelson, B. (1998). The Care of the Un-Downsized. Public Management, Vol. 80, April 1998.Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: Free Press.Snell, S.A. and Dean, J.W. (1992). â€Å"‘Integrated Manufacturing and Human Resource Management: A Human Capital Perspective'†, Academy of   Ã‚  Ã‚   Management Journal, 35: 467-504.Coopers, RT (2005). Employment Law: Attendance Rewards – Legal Ramifications. Online available http://www.uedawn.com/article.cfm/id/57087. Retrieve April 21, 2008.

Summarize employment, labor, and anti-discrimination law Essay

Summarize employment, labor, and anti-discrimination law - Essay Example It’s a less favorable treatment, direct or indirect, on grounds of color, race, nationality, ethnic or national origin† (Whincup, 1998). Sam in the above case appears to be a casualty of such discrimination. In this discussion it will be important to recognize the elements of the alleged offence as well as the liability of the parties with special regard on the applicable regimes of law. i â€Å"The complainant must fall within the class protected by law† (Emerson, 2009). For instance, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex, religion, race, language, political or other opinion, origin, color, property, birth or other status. In this regard, Sam falls within groups of persons discriminated on the basis of race and/or color. ii The party must have suffered as a result of such discrimination. In this case Sam could not secure a promotion despite the fact that he possessed the requisite qualification. The complainant must suffer a disparate impact. â€Å"A disparate impact results from certain employer practices or procedures that though not discriminatory on their face, have a discriminatory effect† (Miller, 2011). iii A party must also establish that there is a connection between the protected status and the suffering occasioned. This can be ascertained from the words used by the interviewer that Sam did not receive the promotion because the interviewer thought whites are lazy. This is a generalized discriminatory opinion. iv The party who has suffered must also prove that another party with either similar or lower qualifications was favored at his expense. It’s most likely that the interviewer gave the promotion opportunity to another person who according to him was not lazy. From this discussion, it is noteworthy that the employer is liable since in any company, an interviewer to any job

Applied Biology personal statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Applied Biology - Personal Statement Example Therefore, pure biology gives us the theoretical approach that will be applied and used in the field through applied biology (Roberts et al., 2000). Living organisms or their derivatives such as enzymes have been used to improve and even manufacture new products. Taq polymerase from Thermophillic bacterium Thermus aquaticus has been used in polymerase chain reactions, in the molecular field of biology. Through biotechnology, yeast in the form of Sacccaromyces cerevisae and S. Carbergensis have been applied in production of alcohol. Similarly, scientists through pure sciences have discovered that use of chemical pesticides is polluting the environment besides causing serious health problems to the consumer. In return, they have discovered that B-toxin that is derived from a bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis kills larvae in plants. Through applied biology, the idea has been applied in the manufacture of biopesticides against larvae in maize hence improving production and conserving the environment (Roberts et al., 2000). Therefore, the two fields co-exist and they can not live without the other. Therefore, students should be exposed to more applied field work rather than pure studies. The knowledge learnt should be applied in solving, improving and modifying of life (Roberts et al., 2000). Therefore, it should be emphasised in the school

Homework II Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Homework II - Essay Example It is the hope of this author that such a unit of analysis will be beneficial to the individual with regards to seeking to understand the changes that the Affordable Health Care Act portends for the daily life and economic situation of the reader/stakeholder within society. Firstly, it must be understood that the federal agency tasked with ultimate implementation of this law is that of the Health and Human Services Department of the United States federal government. As such, this department has received a vastly increased budget as well as an increase in positions of individuals who will be responsible for the distribution and oversight of the Affordable Health Care Act. Ultimately the Health and Human Services Department is a cabinet level office that is tasked with seeking to impact upon â€Å"Improving the health, safety, and well-being of America† (Graham 1). As such, the docket number and RIN for the Affordable Healthcare Act is as follows: 0938-AR51. ... This is intended to be effected by mandating that the individual should integrate with at least some level of healthcare for themselves and for those within their family. Moreover, the Affordable Health Care Act also proposed a reconfiguration of the way in which the insurance industry within the United States sought to deal with â€Å"pre-existing conditions†; a hardship that formerly saw many tens of thousands of individuals denied coverage (Pipes 1). Finally, with regards to an overall summary concerning the basic interests for and against the legislation, it must be understood that the Affordable Health Care Act does not solve the issue of the uninsured within society. Due to exceptions and the possibility of â€Å"opting out† the uninsured can still exist; however, they will now be responsible for paying a yearly penalty for remaining uninsured. Another key shortcoming with regards to the proposed law is the fact that individual small business owners within society who might have otherwise continued to add jobs and higher more individuals since the economy has started to come back to life, are now hesitant to engage in any such action due to the fact that the healthcare bills that small firms will be saddled with, on the part of their employees, will be exorbitantly high (Avik 16). This is of course compared to the way in which healthcare costs were evidenced prior to the legislation being proposed and/or taking place. However, with regards the ultimate benefit and interest to society, it must be understood that the Affordable Health Care Act allows for a great reduction in the overall number of individuals who would have gone uninsured otherwise. By providing an incentive to become insured in reducing the overall level of obstacles that it formerly

How can we help homeless people in our community Research Paper

How can we help homeless people in our community - Research Paper Example Consequently, about fifteen percent of this population is chronically homeless (Shumsky 136). The figures for homeless children are even more disturbing. It is estimated that about fifty children become homeless annually implying that the misery is worsening. This challenge is a major concern that requires not only the government support but also the general community response if both short-term and long-term antidotes are to be found. One way in which the community can be sensitized about this is through broadcasting the film, Bad Grandpa. The film Bad Grandpa is a commentary on American morality because of its use of hidden cameras and unscripted scenes involving people in danger and public’s response to those in need. To remedy the current situation much more needs to be done than merely removing the homeless from the streets and providing them with houses. Surprisingly, government is not addressing these problems for the first time. It has been done severally not only in the United States but also in other countries. Third world nations particularly those that have huge populations in the sub-Saharan regions and Middle East as well as Asia have been challenged greatly by this issue. One of the common responses is the provision of shelter (temporary or permanent, depending). However, the problem seems to persist even with these myriad humanitarian supports. One would, therefore, wonder how come the problem of homelessness cannot be fixed once and for all to save the next generation from experiencing it (Longwell 56). Unfortunately, the weed is been dug from the top leaving the roots to proliferate and cause more harm. As a matter of fact â€Å"†¦homelessness can best be solved through an approach that targets the whole society and not just the victims† (Hombs 58). The perception of the society members has to be changed so as they may be responsive to the needs of fellow members if

Economic issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Economic issues - Essay Example This is true owing to the two groups of spectators being charged $ 150 for lower-yard customers and $ 50 for upper-deck customers in professional sport stadia (Dobson and Goddard, 169). The discrimination method used in this case is the location of the seats of the spectators in the stadium to result in the different prices being charged for different spectators exemplifying a case of price discrimination. 2. Limiting property right on new buildings to 20 years will discourage investment in new buildings, as this will limit the benefits associated with investment in new buildings. The benefits that would be accrued from investment are property rights forming the main reason to augment the incentive to invest in new buildings. These advantages will be reduced when property rights are limited to 20 years reducing the incentive for investment in new buildings. The need to have property rights on new buildings spanning more than 20 years augment the incentive for people to invest in new buildings as they can be able to access rights from their investment in buildings increasing the number of houses being built by

Redefinition of Japanese American Identity Essay

Redefinition of Japanese American Identity - Essay Example Industrialists sought Japanese immigrants to replace the Chinese after the Chinese Exclusion Act took effect. The cultural diversity in the U.S resulted in fundamental questions being raised on America’s culture and identity. The reception of other Asian Americans in U.S had its basis on the reception that the Chinese received. The Japanese later discovered during the Second World War that their achievements in U.S did not lead to any acceptance by the American community. The Japanese were placed in internment camps, unlike the German and Italian Americans (Takaki, p. 7). After the Second World War, and following the treatment of the Japanese Americans during the war, their identity underwent redefinition. This is because of the historical experiences and changes in laws, economics and attitude during the war. After the Second World War, Japanese Americans faced numerous challenges that helped in the creation of their identity. In 1942 following the Pearl Harbor attack, Presid ent Roosevelt instituted the Executive Order 9066. Though the order appeared neutral, it targeted the Japanese classified as a danger to the American society. Thousands of Japanese-American citizens were sent to hurriedly constructed camps (Takaki, p. 6). Many of these citizens spent close to four years in this camps living under heavily armed guards. This Japanese American had American citizenship but faced internment because of their original country’s attack on Pearl Harbor. While the Japanese Americans faced internment, the African Americans faced extreme discrimination and segregation. African Americans would be forced into war and later be discriminated by the exact society it protected (Jones, p. 9). While the Japanese Americans population in West U.S represented a small portion of Japanese Americans in the country, they faced hostility from the vast white population. Customs and laws shut them out from participation in civil life and economics. Japanese immigrants did not have rights to property or citizenship. However, their descendants became citizens by birth and successful in farming and business. The Pearl Harbor attack by the Japanese gave the white Americans an opportunity to renew and reinforce their hostility towards the Japanese Americans. It also gave the white community an opportunity for targeting their competitors in economic activities. This community agitated for the elimination or removal of unwanted competitors-Japanese (Takaki, p. 6). White Americans posted relocation notices all over the American West Coast. The white Americans gave the Japanese one week to leave the country. Japanese farmer’s desperately looked to their unwilling neighbors to take care of their farms. Business owners and farm owners faced financial ruin. They lost everything and forced to sell their shops, homes, furniture and clothes. The Supreme Court in 1944 reinforced the exclusion constitutionally by declaring the permissibility of the exclusion to curtail the civil rights of the Japanese Americans because of the pressing public necessity (Jones, p. 6). This treatment of Japanese Americans by the white Americans is similar to the treatment of other Americans. The African and Mexican Americans faced exclusion from economic activities. Economic and social activities were the preserve of the white Americans, and they viewed other races as competition or slaves.

Research company tries to show that you can only understand consumer Essay

Research company tries to show that you can only understand consumer behaviour by living with their behaviour - Essay Example For this reason, a high range of research methods has been developed for helping marketers in developing the above task. In practice, it has been proved that certain of these methods are not fully effective, allowing the appearance of inaccuracies in their findings. The potential use of ethnography as a research method is explored in this paper. The ‘Project Keyhole’, a research program based on ethnography is used as an example. The project was developed by the advertising firm BMP DDB. The advantages and the limitations of ethnography are also critically examined in order to understand the reasons that led BMP DDB to choose the specific research approach. It is proved that ethnography is a quite effective research method, under the terms that the rules related to its application are respected. 2. Ethnography as a research approach for studying consumer behaviour 2.1 Importance and limitations of ethnography as a research approach Ethnography is a quite popular qualitat ive research method (Rubin and Babbie 2009, p.218). The key characteristic of ethnography is ‘observation in natural settings’ (Rubin and Babbie 2009, p.218). More specifically, in the context of ethnography researchers can observe the behaviour of a social group in regard to a particular social activity (Rubin and Babbie 2009, p.218). ... The research tools used in the context of ethnography are interviews and observation (Rubin and Babbie 2009, p.218). Haviland et al. (2010) also note that ethnography is preferred from other qualitative research approaches since it can offer valuable information on a particular culture, as the similar assumptions have been developed through fieldwork (Haviland et al. 2010, p.12). As a research method, ethnography has certain requirements. The common culture of the social group under observation is the primary condition for the development of a successful research project using ethnography (Rubin and Babbie 2009, p.218). Then, it is preferred that the social group participated in the research project is isolated (Haviland et al. 2010, p.12). Isolation, as a term related to ethnography, reflects not just the lack of participation in certain social activities but also the gathering in a particular area, where the social group involved can develop its own style of life (Haviland et al. 2 010, p.12). Reference can be made, as examples, to the ‘Islands of the Pacific Ocean or the deserts of Australia’ (Haviland et al. 2010, p.12). The above fact cannot lead to the assumption that ethnography cannot be used in the industrialized countries. In fact, ethnography can be used in every place where a social group, of any size but of a common culture, is established (Haviland et al. 2010, p.12). A household can be a social group that could be studied using ethnography (Haviland et al. 2010, p.12). From a similar point of view, Schensul and LeCompte (1999) note that the key requirement for the development of a successful research project based on ethnography is the ability of the researcher involved to identify ‘the cultural

Should the government bailout failing businesses - Argument aginst Research Paper

Should the government bailout failing businesses - Argument aginst - Research Paper Example But more intense debate of the present finance world is whether the decision of saving (bailing-out) these about-to-be bankrupt companies justified! The companies when fell into the trouble were within the periphery of private hands and now, when in trouble, saving them with the common man’s hard-earned money drew reservations from all concerned quarters. The money that was paid to the government to develop utility for the society is being used to discount the wrong doings of these financial giants over the years. Prior to getting deeper into the pros and cons of the bail-out process and its affects on the falling companies and the society at large, the underlying reasons of the financial crisis might be assessed in brief. The few of the major reasons of the financial crisis are ascertained below: Housing Prices – The housing prices in the United States rose to great heights till 2006 and then suddenly collapsed from then onwards. The collapse was more than 25% and continued for more than three years. As C.I. Jones observed, â€Å"The national index for housing prices in the United States declined by 26.6% between the middle of 2006 and the end of 2008† (Jones, 2009). Increase in Global Saving – Even a decade earlier, it was found that the developing economies of the world saved less and invested more. This rendered them to borrow funds from the world market. But as there occurred number of recessions over the period of last fifteen years, the developing economies commenced to save more. This hampered the western economies (especially United States) as it could not channelise their excess funds and earn interests. Ultimately, the excess funds contributed towards the asset market. Subprime Lending – The hype of owning houses that existed in the United States before 2006 made almost all nationals purchase a house which often

Impact of New Technology on Lifestyle and Health Essay Example for Free

Impact of New Technology on Lifestyle and Health Essay As a start I would like to give a short and simple definition of the concept â€Å"technology†. Technology will, in this case and this paper, refer to any physical object, product, environment, or symbol that has been created by human beings. Another frequently used concept with the same meaning is â€Å"artifact† (Simon, 1969). Technology has had a great impact upon the living conditions of people all over the world. Technology has helped us to perform many tasks safer, faster, and with higher precision than would be possible without its help. Technology has also made us stronger, helped us to travel faster, and made it possible for us to perform tasks that otherwise would be impossible to perform. With the help of technology we can perform many tasks that are dangerous for people to perform, like working in a hostile physical environment, for instance in a contaminated or radioactive environment. Technology has helped us to perform boring manual tasks day and night, every day in the week, even without a coffee brake. Technology has made it possible for us to travel all over the world and reach new destinations, quicker than ever. Soon we might even travel to other planets in our Solar system. The invention of machines, computers and other technological artefacts has improved our mental abilities too. Technology can make us smart (Norman, 1993) by increasing our abilities to remember better, by storing information in different formats, and support our reasoning activities. Thanks to computers we can perform complex calculations quickly, simulate processes of different kind, create art and music, and so on. Technology has also helped us to pick up information that earlier was impossible to pick up. Microscopes and telescopes, only to mention a few technological devices, have made it possible for us to look into worlds that we otherwise would not have any access to. New intelligent hearing aids have helped people with hearing deficits to pick up auditory information better and improved the possibilities to communicate with other people. Technology can improve our abilities to control vehicles of different kind, for instance to improve the ability to steer, brake and shift gears in the car. New technology has been used to create systems that can help drivers to find new destinations, or find the quickest route to known destinations. New technology has also been developed for helping drivers to avoid collisions and other dangerous situations. Technology has made it possible to adapt cars to drivers with functional handicap so that they can drive (nearly?) as safely as drivers without these problems. Technology can help mariners to navigate ships across the Atlantic with high precision, to assist pilots in their task of flying to selected destinations, avoid collisions in the air, control the aircraft, and so on. Process industries, manufacturing industries, energy producing industries can today be controlled with the help of new advanced technology. Technology has had an impact on the way we live, work, enjoy ourselves, and communicate with each other. Thanks to improved transportation systems we can now live at a distance from our working place, and commute to our job. Some of us can work from home thanks to the computer and the ability to send digital messages to different destinations. Thanks to the World Wide Web we can communicate with people at very distant places and arrange virtual meetings. We also have new ways of entertaining ourselves. Technology in the Health sector has made important contributions to the treatment of diseases and with the help of advanced technology it is now possible to save lives in a way that was not possible only a few decades ago. In her key note, professor Axelsson has shown how technology can be used in health care. Soon it may be possible to replace missing limbs with artifacts that can perform the tasks the missing limb should have performed. Changes in lifestyle? I believe we can identify some important changes in our lifestyles that are, at least partly, caused by the technological development. With the focus on human work I believe we can identify the following, and many more changes. A shift from physical to mental workload One important trend in our working life is a shift from physically demanding tasks to mentally demanding tasks. Human work has for a long time been more or less dominated by tasks that were physically demanding. Some of these tasks are still with us, but in many cases new technology can help us to perform them with less physical effort. A farmer, say 150 years ago, performed many manual tasks. Today there exist machines that can help the farmer to perform many of the tasks. A miner used to perform many heavy manual tasks when my father was working as a miner. Today trucks are doing the job, quicker and faster. Instead of performing the physically demanding tasks an operator of a machine has to control the machine and supervise its performance, indicating a shift to a mentally demanding task. A task is mentally demanding if it imposes a workload on our abilities to search for and pick up relevant information, store information, use information to make decisions, solve problems, develop action plans and supervise the performance of action plans. Many working tasks today have the character of being more mentally demanding than physically demanding. A shift towards supervising processes The condition for workers has, in many cases, changed from being in direct contact with the working task to using some kind of technological device to perform the task. This has quite often resulted in a new role for the worker. The new role is more of a supervisor of a process. Examples may be found among pilots who are interacting with a computer, the flight management system, which is performing part of the flying task. Another example can be found among workers in highly automated industrial processes, where an automated system is controlling a large part of the process. Increased complexity The introduction of computers has increased the complexity of many tasks. The amount of information we are forced to process in working life has increased. As a result is it has become harder to understand the way different systems are working. The logic of many systems is hidden in the computer and not possible to inspect directly. Negative impact of technology There are some psychological consequences of the changes that has occurred as a result of new technology. In some cases technology can make us stupid, confused and disoriented. Please let me illustrate this statement by giving a few examples on how technology can confuse us and make us look stupid. Technology that may make us stupid Doors are equipped with some kind of device to open and close them. In some cases it is perfectly obvious how the device works by looking at it. In other cases it might be confusing. There exist doors where the device to open and close the doors are identical in shape, but works completely different. A good design should make it obvious how a door should be opened and the principle of consistency should be used. In some cases it may be extremely important to be able to open doors quickly and without involving higher mental processes. Another example of a violation of the principle of consistency is when you have a door with two locks, and to open the door you must turn the key in different directions in each lock. Still another example can be taken from the medical sector. A number of studies have shown that errors are made in this sector, and that errors tend to occur when patients are given their medicine. One possible explanation to this is that different medicines may be stored in bottles that look very much like each other. An interesting question is how the container for different medicines should be physically designed so that it is easy to distinguish different drugs. An example from the automobile industry has to do with the relationship between controls and, in this case, windows. A good principle, stemming from Gestalt psychology, is that you should place a control of a certain device close to that device. This is called the â€Å"proximity principle†. In some cases this is not done, and controls for the windows in a car might be located far away from the windows. The design of the physical environment is also of interest. When a new living area is created and houses and paths are designed, it is common to find that people living there are not walking on the paths that have been so nicely designed. Instead they quite often are using the shortest route across some sensitive area(s). A simple solution here would be to wait and see where people are walking, and after that decide the paths should be located. In some hotel rooms you must use most of your brain power to figure out how the shower works. The problem in many cases is that the function is hidden, and it is not possible to directly see how the shower must be operated. Technology can be used to supervise people – Big Brother can see you In some cases technology is used to supervise worker’s performance at workplaces. This may increase the stress level of the involved workers, and in some cases increase their stress level, and make them sick. On example comes from call centres. The number of call centres has increased rapidly in Sweden. A common definition of a call centre is a working place where people are engaged in telephone communication with customers and are doing that with the help of computer support. In a call centre the operator’s performance can be effectively supervised with the help of computers. It is possible to measure the number of telephone calls each employee is performing during the working day, and also measure the number of breaks that occur during a working day. A psychological effect of this registration is, sometimes, an increased stress level among the workers. Big Brother can see you! Technology can be used to supervise traffic streams, control traffic streams, and identify speeding drivers. Cameras on the road side are being more and more common in Sweden. Some drivers don’t like being supervised by â€Å"Big Brother† and one solution seems to be the destruction of cameras. Technology can also be used to prevent drunken drivers from using their car. Before the car can be started the driver must exhale (breathe) into a measuring device. If the device detects alcohol in the air then the car will not be possible to start. Some drivers which have been found guilty of driving when intoxicated by alcohol have, as a part of their treatment, accepted to install this kind of device in their car. A follow up study has shown that many of these convicted drivers have stopped using this device. Technology can give an invitation to â€Å"Human Error† Besides making us feel stupid, improper design of technology can cause incidents, accidents, and in the worst case kill people. Please let me illustrate this by using some well known accidents as examples. Three Mile Island, USA. This accident happened in the USA 1971. A problem occurred in the Nuclear Power Plant and the situation gradually developed into something problematic. One, out of many, aspects of this accident is that the alarm systems in the Power Plant were activated, and very soon a large number of alarms and warnings were sounding. This probably increased the stress level of the operators who were trying to understand the problem and what to do with it. A high level of stress is not an optimal condition for solving a complex problem. One problem here was that instead of helping the operators to solve the problem the alarm systems made the situation worse. The crash in Gottrà ¶ra, Sweden. A certain similarity can be found in an accident with a passenger plane in Sweden, 1991. A plane (MD 81) started from Arlanda airport (Stockholm) and soon after the start it lost the power of one engine and shortly thereafter the power of the other engine. The captain’s plan was to fly the plane without the help of the engines (basic flying) and perform an emergency landing on an empty field at a distance from the airport. During the four minutes, from the moment the engines had stopped until the aircraft landed safely (!), the plane was shaking and the instrument panel were blinking. Auditory warnings were activated and a female warning voice was talking continuously. The information from the plane to the captain was chaotic and did not offer any useful help to him. In one interview after the accident the captain stated that on the wish list was a warning system that can offer help in situations of this kind. Not a system that distracts and increases the pilots stress level. In Linkà ¶ping, Sweden, a number of patients were treated with the help of a machine that should purify their blood. A nurse misjudged the information from the machine and by mistake turned the machine off. A number of patients died as a result. The machine was built by some technicians and when it was working correctly a number of indicators (lamps) showed the colour red. Normally red is a colour that is used for warnings of different kind. There are also a number of accidents that have occurred as a result of automation. Automation of some tasks may solve some problems, but can also create new possibilities for errors (Bainbridge, 1987). It has been found that people may have an over trust in automation and believe that an automated system takes care of more that it actually can take care of. Automation can also have the effect that an operator becomes less involved in the control of a system and has a problem to take the control back when so needed. What can we do to avoid the negative sides of technology? In the cases where technology is used to supervise people and this is not totally accepted by people this may be regarded as a political question and should be treated as such. This case will not be discussed further in this paper. In cases where the design of technology has caused problems it is possible to provide some guidelines. Improper design of technology is common when technology is designed without consideration of the user’s needs, abilities and limitations. The following advices can be given: Start the development process of new technology by investigating the needs of the intended users! Perform a task analysis (see for instance Kirwan and Ainsworth, 1993) and try to understand what the users need are in order to perform the task efficiently and safely. Involve the intended users early in the design process! Remember that they have a lot of valuable knowledge concerning the task and how it may be performed. Respect individual differences! There are sometimes large individual variations among users of a technological device and the design should be flexible enough to take care of this variation. Make it possible for users to understand the technical device. If users can understand the way a technical device works (if I push this button, then that will happen) the risk for so called â€Å"human error† will most likely decrease. Use the scientific method – test and test again, until you have eliminated the worst problems. The empirical testing of a technical device should have a high priority. Design for human error! People will, in the long run, get tired, distracted or anything else and make an error. This is sometimes called Murphy’s law – if anything can go wrong then it will, sooner or later. Human beings are not like machines and we have to design with that in mind. A technical device should be designed to make it possible to escape the error that sooner or later will be made. Provide feedback (this happened) and feedforward (that will happen). Feedback and feedforward from a technical device should be clear and easy to understand. This will give the user a possibility to understand the system. If possible introduce an undo function! As mentioned earlier people will make errors and this is an error correcting possibility. Use a system perspective! Any kind of technological equipment will be used in a certain context. Analyse the context and see whether the new artefact can successfully be mixed into the context. These are general rules to follow, and by following them I strongly believe that we can influence the design of technology in such a way that our lifestyles and health will be improved. References Bainbridge, L. (1987). Ironies of Automation. In J. Rasmussen, K. Duncan and J. Leplat (Eds.) New Technology and Human Error, John Wiley Sons Ltd Kirwan, B., and Ainsworth, L.K. (Eds.) (1993). A guide to task analysis. Taylor Francis Norman, D.A. (1993). Things that make us smart. PERSEUS BOOKS, USA Reason, J. (1990). Human error. Cambridge university press, USA Simon, H. (1969). The Science of the Artificial. The M.I.T. PRESS

Is there any relationship between Corporate Social Responsibilty and financial performance

Is there any relationship between Corporate Social Responsibilty and financial performance The concept of companies about corporate social responsibility (CSR) has changed over the years. Previously it was viewed only as a phrase that meant administrative conformity and observance of rules and regulations. In recent years however that view has changed and companies are increasingly beginning to realize the important role of corporate social responsibility in winning over the trust and confidence of their customers. Today the business practices of large companies are shaped in such a way as to publicize their ethics and values. Therefore it has become a relevant part of business these days. According to the European Commission (2008), corporate social responsibility is a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis. (http://ec.europa.eu/index_en.htm) The various recommendations of the European commission regarding corporate social responsibility were that CSR covers social and environmental issues even though its normally known as corporate social responsibility. In an organization, CSR should not be separate from the organizations strategy and functions as the main motto of CSR is about incorporating social and environmental concerns into business strategy and functions. Therefore it is a voluntary concept. An important part of CSR is about how business concerns deal with their internal and external stakeholders that is their employees, customers, public authorities, neighbours, etc. Despite of the costs it may bring upon the business, there are various advantages of employing CSR as a major tool in the business: A company prominently engaged in CSR will be enjoying a better reputation and respect from the public and the good reputation helps the company indirectly in many ways. For example it makes the company easier for recruitment as there is less difficulty for a reputed company to find willing employees. The employees stay longer in the company and are more loyal to the company which is considered as a blessing to the company as they can reduce the costs and effort incurred by recruitment and training. They are also more productive as they are better motivated. A company practicing CSR will probably comply with regulatory requirements. It also helps the company in attaining a good relationship with the local authorities. This can help the business in many ways apart from smoothing its functions. This engagement with the local authorities is a good way to generate positive press coverage. CSR also helps the company to understand the impact of business on the environment which helps to produce new products that are environment friendly. It can also make the business more competitive. Finally CSR reduces the chances of the business reputation going down due to some scandals or allegations. Aim and Objectives: The objective of this dissertation is to find out status of relationship between Corporate Social Performance and Corporate Financial Performance that is whether it is positive or negative or whether there is no relevant relation between them at all. In order to achieve this objective, it will be necessary to: Examine the previous researches done on this topic Identify an index to measure the Corporate Social Performance of companies in UK Measure the financial performance of the relevant companies Discuss the relationship between financial performance and corporate responsibility. Business in the communitys (BITC) Corporate Responsibility index is one of the leading UKs benchmark for companies that voluntarily practice corporate social responsibility. According to their survey results of 2008, 8 companies in the UK achieved the Platinum Plus status which is awarded to the companies with highest CSR ratings. Some of the companies in the top were BT, EDF Energy, National Grid, etc. there is also another recognition called the Community Mark which is awarded by Business in the communitys for companies that has achieved various milestones in long term sustainable benefits to both business and the community. We want to be known as a responsible business that is making a difference to some of the global challenges society faces. We want to be known as an innovative business that is developing solutions that benefit society while supporting long-term growth, creating competitive advantage and building successful relationships with our stakeholders.(www.bt.com) This defines BTs approach to responsible business. One of the top rated companies in the Business in the communitys corporate responsibility index and has been awarder the Community Mark recognition. Literature review: Various studies were conducted to evaluate the relationship between corporate responsibility and financial performance: Konar and Cohen (2001) founded a positive correlation exists between a firms environmental performance and its intangible asset value. The study was conducted on 321 manufacturing firms of the SP 500 firms. They employed two environmental performance measures namely Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) emission levels and pending environment-related litigation. Changes in the intangible asset value were estimated by viewing changes in the firms market value. The study also found out that a reduction in the toxic chemical release to the environment resulted in increased market value for the firm. Stanwick and Stanwick (1998) conducted a survey on 102 to 125 companies listed in Fortune magazines Corporate Reputation Index that also include a complete set of Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) data for a five year period from 1987 to 1992. A firms profitability was measured by yearly profits and was managed for different sized firms by dividing profit numbers by the firms annual sales. And the firms pollution level was measured as total toxic emissions, and then divided by annual sales to balance variance in firms size. The study discovered a significant relation between low emission levels and high profitability for firms that are reputed for corporate responsibility. Dowell et al. (2000) found that firms adopting global environments standard that are well above the required legal benchmarks have higher market value than firms that have par or below par environment standards when compared to the legal standards. The study scrutinized 89 companies of the U.S 500 (SP 500) that have manufacturing or mining operations in developing countries. The samples of companies were then categorize into three environmental classification according to Investor Responsibility Research Center (IRRC) data namely (a) firms which follow local environment standards when operating in developing countries (30% firms were positive in this regard). (b) Firms which follow U.S standards while operating in developing countries (10% firms achieved this). (c) Firms which apply internal environment standards which surpass U.S requirements when operating abroad (60% of the firms). (Monks and Minow, 2004) Jaggie and Freedman (1992) studied specifically 13 firms involved in the pulp and paper manufacturing for the year 1978. An emission index used to measure the environmental performances of the companies was used. The firms that had the highest emission output were categorized with an index of 100 and the rest of the firms were adjusted regarding to that. Then the net income, cash flow/equity ratio and ROA indices were combined, with each of them having equal weights, with these pollutant indices. The outcome of the study showed a negative association between environmental and financial performance. (Shaw and Barry, 2004) Christmann (2000) conducted a survey in 2000 which came to the conclusion that chemical companies which employed innovative, proprietary pollution control techniques have managed significant cost savings, especially the companies that had existing facilities to innovate. The survey was conducted focusing on both cost management and pollution prevention on 512 business divisions of chemical companies in the U.S. cost management data were compared to Compustat share price and dividend data to ensure that it accurately replicated the firms financial performance Cohen, Fenn and Konar (1997) conducted a survey focusing on SP 500 companies. Their surveyors conducted the survey by creating two industry-balanced portfolios namely the higher polluter and lower polluter. They then compared the accounting and market return of both the sides. Their research found that either there was some positive return from investing in the environment or there was no return at all from investing. Blacconiere and Northcut (1997) particularly researched the chemical companies during a period of eight months and determined that companies which were likely to be impacted by adverse environmental legislation suffered collectively negative price returns during the time of the discussion of the legislation and its enactment. They also established that the firms with the largest potential liabilities suffered the greatest share price declines in this regard. Louche (1998) concentrated his study on 40 European countries from various sectors. The financial measures such as ROE, ROA and earnings per share were regressed in the context of environmental variables like CO2 emissions, water consumption and energy consumption. Their results established that there was no significant relationship between environmental welfare spending and financial performance. The companies selected were the ones with clear environmental reports. (Murphy, 2002) Since 1970s more than 100 papers have been published that has investigated the relationship between corporate social responsibility (CSR) and financial performance. These studies conclude that there is a strong evidence of positive relationship between a company that is financially sound and socially responsible. For example the London Business School conducted 80 studies on CSR, out of which 42 presented with positive impact, 4 showed negative outcome and 19 showed no correlation. The rest presented with mixed outcomes. Methodology: The primary research will be carried out to find the relationship using the market model ÃŽÂ ² for the companies that are listed in FTSE-100. A sample of 35 companies listed in the FTSE-100 taken. The study is conducted using the regression model after taking ÃŽÂ ² for the stock estimated for two periods, one before the inclusion in the BITCs Corporate Responsibility Index and the next after the inclusion. The study design to be employed here is the Regression Model with the ÃŽÂ ² for the stocks estimated for two periods, the first before being included in the BITCs CR Index and the next after their inclusion. Measurement of financial performance: The financial performance is calculated with the assessment of Measures of Financial Risk which is summed up by Total Risk (Standard Deviation of monthly returns) and systematic market risk. Measurement of social responsibility: The Business in the Community launched its Environment Index in 1996 to help companies benchmark their environmental management and performance. In 2002, member companies requested a mechanism to benchmark their other activities, so Business in the Community developed the broader CR Index to assess their impacts on the community, marketplace and workplace through their operations, products and services, and interaction with key stakeholders. Performance Band: Platinum : à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥95% Gold : 90 94.5% Silver : 80 89.5% Bronze : 70 79.5% (www.bitc.org.uk) In addition to this, interviews with the managers of some companies should be conducted to get a detailed view of their policies and opinion. This is done to compare the results of the previous analysis with the managers point of view. Also interviews and email communications with some research agencies should be carried out to get attain relevant information. Some of the agencies are European Academy of Business in Society (EABIS) Business and Human Rights Resource Centre Ethical Investment Research Service (EIRIS) The data resulting from these researches will be examined and analysed. This project will involve the analysis of both the quantitative and qualitative data. The external research will be conducted through reading and identifying the findings of published material like magazines, journals, newspapers and other media. The financial performance will contain both the quantitative and qualitative data. The market model ÃŽÂ ² coefficient will produce the quantitative data while the financial analysis will require the qualitative data as well. The results could be displayed in the form of graphs, spreadsheets and pictures. Therefore it will contain both the qualitative and quantitative data. The qualitative data that comes from the managers, for example the relevance of social responsibility will aid in the analysis, verification and conclusion of the relationship between corporate social responsibility and corporate financial performance. The financial data for the sample of 35 UK companies listed could be obtained from the Financial Times Stock Exchange where the stock prices of the companies are available on a daily, monthly and yearly basis. This will facilitate in the finding of the value ÃŽÂ ². Then the BITCs Corporate Responsibility Index could be used to measure the social responsibility variable of the companies which is available on the internet. Finally data will be acquired from sources like magazines, books, articles, official websites of companies, journals, company reports, research agencies etc. Conclusion: This dissertation aims to find out the relationship correlation between the financial performance and the social responsibility of the companies as there is an increasing need in todays world in the face of issues like global warming, ozone layer depletion, wildlife endangerment, increasing pollution, lack of drinking water, etc. nowadays companies and businesses adopting a policy of social and environmental awareness is essential for making the world a better place to live. REFERENCES: Monks, A.G Minow, Nell, 2004. Corporate Governance. 3rd edition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Shaw, William.H Barry, Vincent, 2004. Moral Issues in Business. 9th edition. USA: Thomson Learning Inc. Murphy, Christopher.J, 2002. Profitable Correlation between Environmental and Financial Performance. www.bitc.org.uk www.bt.com http://ec.europa.eu/index_en.htm

Frameworks of Entrepreneurship

Frameworks of Entrepreneurship Introduction: In the minds of masses, entrepreneurs are placed as solo heroes who after putting a brave fight against all the odds of business world became successful. Traditionally, all theories touted entrepreneurship as an individual act but problems like scarcity of finances, inadequacy of skill set and competitive market forces gave way to a new era in entrepreneurship more commonly termed as Team Entrepreneurship. Objective: The concept and theoretical foundations in this field are still in the stage of infancy. This paper is an attempt to explore the concept of Team Entrepreneurship, trace the definitions and identify the conceptual framework on the basis of the researches done in the field. Findings: Diverse opinions regarding team-building mechanisms, composition and dynamics of the entrepreneurial teams have been observed from the literature. The study also identified the multiple facets in which the entrepreneurial team exists. A conceptual framework depicting the phenomenon of creation and operation of entrepreneurial teams have been developed. Conclusion: Team based entrepreneurial ventures have proved to be successful provided an effective organizational model is developed for its sustenance. Researches have shown a considerable success rate for team ventures especially undertaken at SME level. Global slowdown has significantly highlighted the importance of risk sharing in business ventures. Team entrepreneurship can be considered as the most viable and effective mode of venturing in the present and future scenario given its benefits of sharing of resources, skills, and above all financial risks. INTRODUCTION Management and its practices in the present era has experienced major paradigm shift and one of the most prominent shift is the change in the philosophy from individual excellence to team excellence. Team players rather than solo stars are what companies look for while recruiting people. Performance is judged more specifically on the criterion laid down for the team as a whole. An innovative project these days may not be the baby of a single individual but the soul child of a team. This swing jump from solo show to the band of performers can also be observed in the case of entrepreneurship. Since the seminal work of Birch (1979), many studies have focused on small firms (as their rate of growth can frequently appear more dramatic than that achieved by larger organizations). For a long time it has been a great myth that entrepreneurship implicitly describes the battle of a lonely hero against economic, governmental and social forces (Cooney Bygrave, 1997). Lot of research work could be found where entrepreneurs were identified as individual business founders(Gartner, 1985; Hofer Sandberg, 1986; Carland, Hoy, Boulton, Carland, 1984; Olson, 1987, but team entrepreneurship as an area of study is a more recent phenomenon (Ensley et al., 1999: Kamm et al., 1990). However, over the past 15 years, team entrepreneurship has received increased attention. Based on research conducted from the inside of a fast-growing firm, Alex Stewart shows that entrepreneurship is both collective, a team-based activity and individual, a leader-made creation. It is arguable that despite the romantic notion of the entrepreneur as a lone hero, the reality is that successful entrepreneurs either built teams about them or were part of a team throughout. For example, when one considers the success of Apple Computers, the name of Steven Jobs immediately springs to mind. However, while Jobs was the charismatic folk hero and visionary, it was Steve Wozniack who invented the first PC model and Mike Markkula who offered the business expertise and access to venture capital (Sculley and Byrne, 1988). DEFINING TEAM ENTREPRENEURSHIP In the early 90s scholars (eg Kamm et al 1990, MÃ ¼ller-BÃ ¶ling and Heil 1994) explored a very important but almost undiscovered field in the entrepreneurship research namely team entrepreneurship.The studies on team ventures are scarce, they often lack a theoretical background or fail to even provide a proper definition of the researched object. Due to this lack of research it has become a real tough proposition to get a comprehensive definition of team entrepreneurship. Some researchers argue that this lack of definition and theoretical framework leads to the contradictory and some times even confusing empirical results in the field of Team Entrepreneurship. Team entrepreneurship does not view the process of entrepreneurship as a preserve of the individuals rather it is seen as a capability and attitudes whereby individual skills are integrated into, group or team, becoming partners in the businesss future evolution.This collective capacity to innovate becomes something greater than the sum of its parts. Ensley, Carland, Carland (1998), combine elements from other definitions found in the literature and establish three conditions which identify an individual as member of an entrepreneurial team: they have either (1) jointly established a firm, (2) a financial interest in, or (3) a direct influence on the strategic alignment of the venture. The most frequently employed definition is that by Kamm et al. (1990), who suggested that an entrepreneurial group is two or more individuals who jointly establish a business in which they have equal financial interest. These individuals are present at the pre-start-up phase of the firm, before it actually begins making goods or services available to the market. However, two substantive elements of this definition are subject to disagreement: (1) the inclusion of the term equal financial interest, where a more open interpretation of financial interest is required instead, and (2) the focus on pre-start-up, because an individual could possibly become a team member at any point in the maturation of the firm. The definition should additionally concentrate on new venture creation rather than on team development within an established organization. An entrepreneurial team be defined as two or more individuals who have a significant financial interest and participate actively in the development of the enterprise. The purpose of significant financial interest is in recognition of the fact that only sporadically would all partners have equal financial interest. However, the question of what constitutes significant remains undefined and should only be considered within a specific context. The intent of the phrase participate actively was designed to eliminate sleeping or silent partners (i.e. those who invest capital but do not involve themselves beyond seeking a return on their investment). Moreover, the definition excludes venture capital firms, banks, and other investment institutions since it is only concerned with individuals. A final point of note to the definition is that it was with regard to the development of the enterprise. This acknowledges the dynamic nature of the enterprise and accedes to the prospect that team membe rs can join (or leave) at any stage of the maturation of the firm. Therefore, the definition is not restricted to pre-start-up but embraces the concept of entrepreneurial teams as fluid and evolutionary. Leon Shjeodt developed another comprehensive definition of entrepreneurial team as a team consisting of two or more persons who have an interest, both financial and otherwise, in and commitment to the ventures future and success; whose work is interdependent in the pursuit of common goals and venture success; who are accountable to the entrepreneurial team and for the venture; who are considered to be at the executive level with executive responsibility in the early phases of the venture, including founding and pre-start up; and who are seen as a social entity by themselves and by others. This definition again brought forward that such team are not necessarily created as pre-start-up rather can be formed at the later stages. Interdependence of the team members for venture performance and accountability are also incorporated alongwith the identity of entrepreneurial teams as a social entity. FORMATION AND COMPOSITION OF ENTREPRENEURIAL TEAMS Research has shown that teams start a significant number of new ventures, or a team is created within the first years of start up (Kamm, Shuman, Seeger, Nurick, 1990; Watson, Ponthieu, Critelli, 1995), the quality and composition of the team is a critical determinant of organizational performance (Glick, Miller, Huber, 1993; Hambrick, 1994). According to Cooper and Daily (1997), an entrepreneurial team is more than a group because it involves a shared commitment to the new venture, but they stop short of defining what shared commitment is. Katzenbach (1997) suggests that what must be shared is the accountability. Eisenhardt and Schoonhovens (1990) contribution in defining entrepreneurial team considered: a group of people holding full-time executive positions at the time of founding. Whereas Leon Schjeodt emphasised that it is not necessary to be in the pre-start up or founding phases of the venture to be a part of the entrepreneurial team. It is possible for a person to be considered a part of the entrepreneurial team if the person is brought into the venture in the early phases to help establish the venture. The composition of the entrepreneurial team refers to the collective characteristics of its members (e.g., Banter Jackson, 1989). Entrepreneurial teams are most effective if they balance their skills, knowledge, and abilities as Cooper and Daily (1997) suggest. Heterogeneity in the entrepreneurial teams composition is needed for the team to achieve a high level of effectiveness and venture performance. TMT functional heterogeneity increases the likelihood of strategic change (Lant, Milliken, Batra, 1992; Wiersema Bantel, 1992), increases strategic consensus (Knight et al., 1999), and enhances performance (Bunderson Sutcliffe, 2002), but it can also create cognitive and affective conflict (Amason, 1996; Kamm Nurick, 1993; Miller, Burke, Glick, 1998). Despite this conflict, research suggests that heterogeneous TMTs perform better because their ability to leverage multiple perspectives improves their decision making (e.g., Miller et al., 1998 Simons, Pelled, Smith, 1999). Demographic diversity does not play a very significant role in team formation and composition. Sanjib Chowdhury(2005) suggests that demographic diversity is not important for entrepreneurial team effectiveness, whereas the team process variables positively influence team effectiveness. He also identified that the diversity in terms of gender, age and functional background does not contribute to the team-level cognitive comprehensiveness and team commitment Another aspect of composition is time and its affect on the team. As mentioned earlier, it was found that effects of diversity, especially for demographic characteristics, within the entrepreneurial team decreased over time as the ET engaged in lengthy discussions and solved disagreements and complex problems (Glicket al., 1993; Harrison, Price, Bell, 1998) Two principles of team formation dominate the strategic management literature on teams, although most research concerns the upper echelons of established firms, rather than startups (Forbes et al., 2006).First, a rational process model of team formation emphasizes selecting members based on pragmatic instrumental criteria, such as complementary skills or work experiences. From this viewpoint, competency should shape team formation so that new ventures possess the capabilities needed to manage complexity and growth. Second, a social psychological model emphasizes the interpersonal fit between team members and the need for smoothly functioning group processes. Many scholars have pointed to the important role that social and emotional support play in affecting human behavior (Thoits, 1984). For example, positive social relations within a team can create a supportive context within which people are encouraged to undertake innovative actions. The two sets of principles are not mutually ex clusive. Within the constraints of interpersonal attraction, teams can still search instrumentally for members. Similarly, within the constraints of resource-based needs, teams can still choose people who are attractive. SUSTAINING TEAM ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN AN ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT Setting up of an entrepreneurial venture jointly is one aspect but sustaining entrepreneurial groups poses a big challenge. When educated, skilled and dynamic individuals join hands for a venture in the entrepreneurial capacity then firms must assure that their organizational environment is closely matched to their heterogeneity of mental models (e.g.,diversity of ideas and entrepreneurial skills) at all levels, especially at upper-level management. However, an organization composed of individuals with very similar perceptions of the potential services from firms resources and the competitive environment is likely to have a truncated set of productive opportunities. In team entrepreneurship, the team can be as effective as the creative inputs provided by its members, which can expand and be enriched when members learn from each others diverse ideas, perceptions, and expectations. Also, with the inclusion of complementary skills in the team, the cooperative entrepreneurial team can ty pically overcome the limitations of its individual members (Barnard, 1938). An informal organization culture is required to encourage continuous resource learning through interactions in teams. Under conditions that inhibit creative thinking, entrepreneurial experimentation, and risk taking, human resources are likely to function substantially below their full entrepreneurial capacity. It is of utmost important that an environment be created to avoid stifling of creativity of individuals that mar many firms. Individuals must have freedom and opportunities in order to imagine different services of resources, to deploy individual entrepreneurial capital, to renew the firms unique productive opportunity set, and to mobilize invisible assets (Itami Roehl,1987). Individuals are not only allowed to think creatively, but are also encouraged to voice their creative ideas and visions about new product ideas and novel ways to utilize resources. An entrepreneurially stimulating environment provides individuals with resource flexibility and slack for calculative experimentation (Barry, 1991; Dobrev Barnett, 2005; Mosakowski, 1997), which helps mobilize the cognitive assets of the firm that are in the form of heterogeneous mental models. Resource learning and organizational learning involve taking risks, making mistakes, and experimenting with novel solutions and ideas. Pervasive fear of failure and punishment instilled in employees does not belong to entrepreneurial environments, as it can severely constrict risk- taking and resource learning (McGrath McMillan, 2000). Besides seeking creative thinking, effective entrepreneurship requires investments in ideas and rewarding entrepreneurial thinking and experimentation both at the individual level and at the team level. An effective allocation of inducements to encourage entrepreneurial efforts requires recognition of the diversity of individual needs, as some individuals are more interested in material benefits while others are more motivated by social benefits and entrepreneurial engagement. Furthermore, the element of time as a scarce resource (Mahoney, 2005; Mosakowski,1993) deserves special attention in entrepreneurship research because developing a productive opportunity set for the firm requires personal (tacit) knowledge of the firms material and human resources, which can only be developed over time as entrepreneurs interact and experiment with the firms bundle of resources. Importance of time management is also be attributed to the diverse mental inputs as the entrepreneurs need time and place to think and function together to produce synergistic cognitive outcomes. KEY ATTRIBUTES OF TEAM ENTREPRENEURSHIP Based upon the review of researches done on the definitional and compositional aspects of entrepreneurial teams some of the key factors of team entrepreneurship can be identified as follows: Entrepreneurship is no more a lone action. Team based approach is required to lead to fast growth. One of the major forces that led to the evolution of team entrepreneurship is the entry level barriers that confronted small firms. To overcome the restrictions imposed by large firms on entry, many Small and medium sized firms formed themselves into teams. A jointly established business by a group of individuals as well as any individual joining the firm at a later stage in the entrepreneurial capacity comes under the preview of team entrepreneurship. That would mean a team formed for new venture creation where all members will be founder member/ a person joining the founder team at a later stage/ teams formed within an enterprise for entrepreneurial ventures. Within an organisation, entrepreneurial teams may exist at different levels. Top management teams (TMT), corporate entrepreneurship, shop-floor entrepreneurship etc are such teams that are created within the organization for innovation and creativity. Entrepreneurial groups do not incorporate passive or sleeping members. Active participation in strategic, managerial and operational level is warranted. Only that individual can be considered as a member of entrepreneurial team who bears direct influence on strategic areas of the venture. Need for personal risk taking is reduced as team entrepreneurship marks sharing of financial interests. Sharing may or may not be equal but a significant financial interest in the venture is required by the individual to be a member of entrepreneurial team. Pooling of financial resources and sharing of financial risks are the key drivers for team ventures. A diverse skill set is available in an entrepreneurial team. Individual limitations are overcome and synergic effects can be observed very lucidly. The individual knowledge, capabilities and attributes get integrated into a team hence leading to success of the venture. Issues of group dynamics need to be addressed in team entrepreneurship. Issues related to control, ownership, role; responsibilities etc need to be handled at the very outset to avoid problems at later stage. Too many contributing minds can pose a problem as well. Diversity in terms of demography, culture, skill set, knowledge and experience etc at one hand may be the strength of the team but if not taken care of may lead to dysfunctional conflict among the teams. Informal social interaction, friendship, time for discussions, respect for individual opinion and team opinion being given the highest regard, creative environment are some of the factors that may keep the dysfunctional conflicts at bay and might be helpful in sustaining such teams. Innovation and creativity are the key ingredients of entrepreneurial teams. Innovative thinking and creativity in decision making will keep the individuals with entrepreneurial instincts bound in a team. Brain-storming of new ideas, creative methods of working and creating and innovation of new modes, techniques or project as team provide thrill for such individuals and may be may be instrumental in key the team together and performing. FORMS OF ENTREPRENEURIAL TEAMS The team phenomenon in entrepreneurship is visible in many forms , Johannisson has observed two different perspectives in identifying existence of group entrepreneurship First perspective regards teaming up of individuals as the way of initiating and organizing the entrepreneurial process and second perspective is group entrepreneurship as regards the outcome of entrepreneurial processes. Family Business: Family Businesses are operated by and for families with the intention of keeping the firm within the family after succession. Members of the family run their business collectively hence represent an image of group entrepreneurship. Partnership: Partnership refers to teaming up of individuals for venturing into some common business. In that context partnership gets associated with group entrepreneurship. Co-operatives: Cooperatives offer a formal structure with joint ownership and control and hence visibly represents the group entrepreneurship. TMT: Top management teams can either be the founder teams of new venture or teams created within an organization for leadership role. Virtual organisations: It is a mode of organizing where independent partner firms put in a joint effort to materialize the promises carried by the leading firms products to its customers. The challenge is to make the customer perceive the virtual organisation as a whole.(Johannisson 2002: 18). Extrapreneurship: For Daval (2002), it materializes by the development of a new entity by an employee when he leaves his firm, helped in taking this step by his former employer. Extrapreneurship is now more commonly adopted by a group of employees leaving their respective organisation and joining their skill set to start new venture Shop floor entrepreneurship: Shop floor entrepreneurship refers to the concept of self-organising groups and teams created for entrepreneurial purposes by employees at shop floor level. According to Johannisson (2002: 19), Sweden and other Scandinavian countries have a long tradition of self-organising in groups on the shop floor (in contrast to intrapreneurship that usually focuses middle-management). Corporate entrepreneurship: Johannisson (2002) seems to refer to intrapreneurship here (The intrapreneur, operating a quasi-independent venture within the corporation as an arena for entrepreneurship. Corporate Entrepreneurship (CE) is the process by which individuals inside organisations pursue opportunities without regard to the resources they currently control (Stevenson, Roberts, and Grousbeck, 1999) Intellectual Entrepreneurship Johannisson et al. (1999) have introduced the notion of intellectual entrepreneur to depict those people who mobilise their intellectual capabilities in an entrepreneurial career. Community entrepreneurship: Johannisson and Nilsson (1989) have introduced the notion of community entrepreneur to capture persons who use personal networking to mobilize internal as well as external resources to promote local venturing processes. FACTORS AFFECTING TEAM ENTREPRENEURSHIP To create a conceptual framework of team entrepreneurship on the basis of available inputs on entrepreneurial teams, the factors affecting such teams at different stages of team formation, composition and sustenance dynamics have been identified. Entrepreneurial teams can be formed either at prestart-up stage and/or at post start up stage .New ventures, partnership firms, extrapreneurship specifically fall under the category of pre-start-up teams, corporate entrepreneurship and shop floor entrepreneurship come under the category of post start-up teams and TMTs, family businesses, cooperatives, virtual organizations, intellectual entrepreneurship etc can either be forms as pre start up or post start up teams. Forms of entrepreneurial teams can also be viewed from the aspect of level of management at which such teams operates. For that purpose TMTs are formed at top level, corporate entrepreneurial teams at middle level and shop-floor teams at operational level. Regarding the team comp osition, issues as to why team is required and who can be the part of the team need to be addressed. As is obvious by now, the rationale behind creating a team rather than functioning solo is sharing of resources, skills, risk, knowledge etc an effective entrepreneurial team may be composed of individual with wide knowledge, skills and competencies. Such individuals must not be averse to risk and experimentation. Creativity and innovation should be the drivers of such individuals. Sustenance of such teams require a great deal of managing group dynamics. Diversity in demography and cultural may not be instrumental in enhancing performance but can be a deterrent if not handled well. Variable mental inputs and variable degree of creative and innovation instincts may also give rise to conflicts.Figure 1-1 tabulates all the factors affecting team entrepreneurship FACTORS AFFECTING TEAM ENTREPRENEURSHIP TEAM FORMATION* TEAM COMPOSITION TEAM DYNAMICS As per joining of team members: Resource-sharing Risk-sharing Complementary skill set Enriching knowledge and competency base Experience Experimentation Risk-seeking Innovation Creativity Social interaction Diversity in skills Diverse mental inputs Demographic heterogeneity Interpersonal relations Cultural diversity Time Diverse appetite of creativity Diverse cognitive needs Pre-start-up teams: New venture teams, Extrapreneurship, partnership family business, cooperatives, virtual organisations etc Post-start-up teams: TMTs, Corporate entrepreneurship, Shop-floor entrepreneurship, cooperatives, family business, virtual organisations etc As per levels of Management Strategic level: TMT Tactic level: corporate entrepreneurship Operational level: shop-floor entrepreneurship *forms of teams are not mutually exclusive CONCLUSION As again the notion of entrepreneurship being a solo act, several researchers have proved that the present is the era of teams. No person is equipped enough to build an empire all by himself. No conqueror has won the battle alone, no CEO can run a company without a team. Team based entrepreneurial ventures have proved to be successful provided an effective organizational model is developed for its sustenance. Researches have shown a considerable success rate for team ventures especially undertaken at SME level. Another notion of entrepreneurial team being the team of founder who start a new venture has also been proved lop-sided. Existence of entrepreneurial teams can be traced in various forms and at multiple levels. This paper was an attempt to bring together the knowledge created by many researchers but may suffer from many limitations. The studies considered for the review are not exhaustive and hence the findings may also not be exhaustive. A lot of further research need to be d one on the topic because team entrepreneurship is going to be the buzz-word for the future. Global slowdown has significantly highlighted the importance of risk sharing in business ventures. Team entrepreneurship can be considered as the most viable and effective mode of venturing in the present and future scenario given its benefits of sharing of resources, skills, and above all financial risks. *Assistant professor, GNIMT, Model Town Ludhiana

the scarlet letter :: essays research papers

The Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Scarlet Letter is a story that shows a love that cannot be. â€Å"Mother,† said little Pearl, â€Å"the sunshine does not love you. It runs away and hides itself, because it is afraid of something on your bosom. It will not flee from me, for I wear nothing on my bosom yet!† This quotation is how I see the love that cannot be. The sunshine is the love of a man (Arthur Dimmesdale) and it does just what Pearl says - it runs and hides itself from the scarlet letter.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This love must be hidden because of practical reasons; such as Roger Chillingworth who is her husband is still alive. He knows about his wife and Arthur and he is plotting revenge on Arthur. With Roger in Boston he would get in the way of them having an open relationship and he would destroy their true love.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Arthur and Hester’s love cannot exist because of personal reasons as well. Hester wears the scarlet letter, so Arthur can’t be with her or it might destroy his reputation. Also, if he were to be with her, the people of his church could not look up to him for their spiritual guidance. The final reason to keep these lovers apart is societal. The Puritan belief in New England during the middle of the seventeenth century would not have tolerated any type of union between Arthur and Hester. The strict codes of conduct would destroy any way for them to be alone. Their only opportunities to be alone are chance encounters in the forest, but then it would seem as if they were going to see the black, mysterious man that represents evil in this book. Because of all these reasons, The Scarlet Letter is a story about a love that could not be.

Auschwitz Concentration Camp :: essays research papers

Auschwitz EVEN IN THE SILENCE OF THE POLISH countryside, Auschwitz can not rest in peace. The name alone prompts instant recognition--a shorthand for the criminal barbarity of the 20th century. If ever there were a place in which myth was unseemly and unnecessary, where fact could be left unadorned, it would be Auschwitz. For 50 years, that has not been the case. The list of myths and misconceptions about the largest Nazi concentration camp is a long one. Soviet investigators declared in May 1945 that 4 million people had died in Auschwitz, and the Polish Communist authorities stuck to this inflated figure until they lost power in 1989. Since then the number has heen revised to between 1.1 million and 1.5 million, which most historians now believe is accurate. Until the Soviet bloc fell, the exhibits at Auschwitz downplayed the number of Jewish victims, suggesting that their part of the total was smaller than the 90 percent figure generally accepted today. In the West, many erroneously believed that the camp was created to murder Jews, and that Auschwitz was the primary killing ground for Polish Jews. The facts are more complex. A former army barracks located near the town of Oswiecim, or Auschwitz in German, the main camp received its first transport of 728 Poles in June 1940. These were political prisoners, usually affiliated with resistance movements. In most cases, they were Catholics, since the deportations of Jews had not yet begun. But as soon as those first prisoners arrived, they were treated to a speech that signaled the future evolution of the camp. "You have come not to a sanatorium but to a German concentration camp where the only way out is through the chimney," Karl Fritsch, the SS chief in charge of the prisoners, declared. "If someone doesn't like it, he can throw himself on the barbed wire. If there are Jews in the transport, they don't have the right to live more than two weeks; priests, one month, and the others, three months." "The camp was created to destroy the most valuable part of Polish society, and the Germans partly succeeded in this," says Zygmunt Gaudasinski, an early political prisoner there. Some prisoners, like Guadasinski's father, were shot; torture was commonplace, and the early mortality rate was very high. That changed once prisoners latched onto jobs--in the kitchens, warehouses and other sheltered places--which increased their odds for survival. Auschwitz Concentration Camp :: essays research papers Auschwitz EVEN IN THE SILENCE OF THE POLISH countryside, Auschwitz can not rest in peace. The name alone prompts instant recognition--a shorthand for the criminal barbarity of the 20th century. If ever there were a place in which myth was unseemly and unnecessary, where fact could be left unadorned, it would be Auschwitz. For 50 years, that has not been the case. The list of myths and misconceptions about the largest Nazi concentration camp is a long one. Soviet investigators declared in May 1945 that 4 million people had died in Auschwitz, and the Polish Communist authorities stuck to this inflated figure until they lost power in 1989. Since then the number has heen revised to between 1.1 million and 1.5 million, which most historians now believe is accurate. Until the Soviet bloc fell, the exhibits at Auschwitz downplayed the number of Jewish victims, suggesting that their part of the total was smaller than the 90 percent figure generally accepted today. In the West, many erroneously believed that the camp was created to murder Jews, and that Auschwitz was the primary killing ground for Polish Jews. The facts are more complex. A former army barracks located near the town of Oswiecim, or Auschwitz in German, the main camp received its first transport of 728 Poles in June 1940. These were political prisoners, usually affiliated with resistance movements. In most cases, they were Catholics, since the deportations of Jews had not yet begun. But as soon as those first prisoners arrived, they were treated to a speech that signaled the future evolution of the camp. "You have come not to a sanatorium but to a German concentration camp where the only way out is through the chimney," Karl Fritsch, the SS chief in charge of the prisoners, declared. "If someone doesn't like it, he can throw himself on the barbed wire. If there are Jews in the transport, they don't have the right to live more than two weeks; priests, one month, and the others, three months." "The camp was created to destroy the most valuable part of Polish society, and the Germans partly succeeded in this," says Zygmunt Gaudasinski, an early political prisoner there. Some prisoners, like Guadasinski's father, were shot; torture was commonplace, and the early mortality rate was very high. That changed once prisoners latched onto jobs--in the kitchens, warehouses and other sheltered places--which increased their odds for survival.